S2CID 31245042
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While short-acting versions like daily injections may better control postprandial glucose levels, they have largely been replaced by long-acting alternatives such as semaglutide (Ozempic and Wegovy) and tirzepatide (Mounjaro and Zepbound), which only require weekly injections
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[4] The nature of the compounded formulation of testosterone cypionate means inactive components, usually limited to grapeseed oil and possibly a bacteriostatic agent, can be adjusted to address allergies or other patient-specific considerations, thereby offering flexibility beyond what is available with a single commercial brand while still requiring physician oversight and periodic laboratory monitoring to ensure both efficacy and safety

Other groups who may benefit include: Patients following gastric surgery (gastrectomy, bariatric procedures) where intrinsic factor production or absorption sites are compromised Individuals with malabsorption disorders such as Crohn's disease, coeliac disease, or chronic pancreatitis Strict vegans and vegetarians with dietary insufficiency, though oral supplementation is usually tried first Elderly patients with atrophic gastritis or reduced gastric acid production Patients on long-term metformin or proton pump inhibitors, which can impair B12 absorption [6] [8] Individuals with nitrous oxide exposure (recreational or medical), which can cause functional B12 deficiency Diagnosis typically involves serum B12 measurement, with levels below approximately 148 pmol/L (though thresholds vary between laboratories) generally indicating deficiency