Dalmasso and colleagues (Gastroenterology, 2008, PMID 18061177) reported that KPV is taken up through the di- and tripeptide transporter PepT1, which is normally expressed in the small intestine and induced in the colon during inflammation, and that uptake was associated with reduced NF-B activation in human epithelial and immune cell lines
It works by stimulating the release of insulin and reducing the production of glucagon, both of which help to lower blood sugar levels in individuals with type 2 diabetes
Intramuscular injection, by contrast, deposits peptide 1540mm deep (depending on needle length and injection site), requiring the compound to enter venous return, circulate systemically, and then diffuse back out of dermal capillaries to reach fibroblasts
Importantly, cessation of AAS use does not invariably lead to full recovery of endocrine function
Neither is an FDA-approved drug for human therapeutic indications
B12 supports a number of bodily functions that contribute to cognitive wellness, energy metabolism, and healthy blood cells