What is measured in these rats and mice (and occasionally in small groups of human volunteers) is often not a hard endpoint like muscle strength or weight loss, but surrogate biomarkers: molecules in the blood that have an indirect link to a hard endpoint
Side effects that occur less frequently are lightheadedness, nausea, fatigue, headache, dizziness, warmth, or flushing
Both injection types are far more effective at raising B12 levels than oral supplements, but the best method really depends on your individual needs
A doctor will prescribe them to a 503A compounding pharmacy in the US to fill, which is legal
The figures widely used are derived from animal research and accumulated community experience
The needle should be inserted into the pinched skin in a smooth, quick motion